Beyond Slash-and-Burn: Fire, Fallow, Livelihoods, and Justice in Local Community Land-Use Systems—A Multidimensional Review of Ramifications and Context-Sensitive Mitigation

Loso Judijanto

doi:10.59890/ijgsr.v4i9.340

Authors

Loso Judijanto IPOSS Jakarta

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.59890/ijgsr.v4i9.340

Keywords:

Slash-and-Burn, Shifting Cultivation, Swidden Agriculture, Local Communities, Indigenous Knowledge, Forest Fire, Fallow Management, Agroforestry, Environmental Justice, Sustainable Land Management

Abstract

Slash-and-burn agriculture remains one of the most contested land-use practices in tropical and subtropical regions. It is frequently associated with deforestation, biodiversity loss, greenhouse-gas emissions, soil degradation, haze, and public-health burdens, yet the term also encompasses long-established rotational systems in which local and Indigenous communities cultivate small plots temporarily before allowing secondary vegetation to regenerate during fallow periods. This qualitative literature review critically examines the multidimensional ecological, socioeconomic, cultural, health, and governance ramifications of community-based slash-and-burn and shifting cultivation and evaluates context-sensitive mitigation pathways. Contemporary evidence demonstrates that outcomes are governed not simply by the use of fire but by interactions among fallow duration, cultivation frequency, patch size, tree retention, soil and hydrological conditions, drought, livelihood dependence, market integration, tenure security, and customary institutions. Long-rotation systems may retain important food-security, agrobiodiversity, cultural, soil-recovery, and landscape biodiversity functions, whereas compressed fallows, permanent conversion, peatland drainage, and repeated uncontrolled burning can generate severe degradation and health externalities

References

Abrell, T., Naudin, K., Bianchi, F. J. J. A., Aragão, D. V., Tittonell, P., & Corbeels, M. (2024). Shifting cultivation in decline: An analysis of soil fertility and weed pressure in intensified cropping systems in Eastern Amazon. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 360, 108793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2023.108793

Alam, S., Nurhidayah, L., & Lim, M. (2023). Towards a transnational approach to transboundary haze pollution: Governing traditional farming in fire-prone regions of Indonesia. Transnational Environmental Law, 12(2), 424–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2047102522000450

Bauernschuster, S., Pichler, M., Ingalls, M., Thongmanivong, S., & Gingrich, S. (2022). Discursive and biophysical dimensions of land sparing policies in Laos: Implications for greenhouse gas emissions and food security. Land Use Policy, 120, 106293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106293

Baul, T. K., Chowdhury, A. I., Uddin, M. J., Hasan, M. K., Kilpeläinen, A., Nandi, R., Karmakar, S., & Akhter, J. (2023). Effects of fragmentation and shifting cultivation on soil carbon and nutrients: A case study in Sitapahar forest, Bangladesh. Rhizosphere, 27, 100756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2023.100756

Beggs, L., Neale, T., Costello, O., Rawluk, A., Pascoe, J., & Shields, T. (2025). Emergent sovereignties: Pragmatism, experiment, and affect within collaborative Indigenous wildfire management in southeast Australia. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 8(4), 1213–1232. https://doi.org/10.1177/25148486251337284

Behera, S., & Rout, S. (2025). Shifting cultivation—A way of life of Kandhas of Kandhamal: Is it under threat?. The Oriental Anthropologist, 25(1), 121–138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972558X241313198

Borah, J. R., Gilroy, J. J., Evans, K. L., & Edwards, D. P. (2022). The value of shifting cultivation for biodiversity in Northeast India. Diversity and Distributions, 28(9), 1979–1992. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13605

Borges, S. L., Ferreira, M. C., Walter, B. M. T., dos Santos, A. C., Scariot, A. O., & Schmidt, I. B. (2023). Secondary succession in swamp gallery forests along 65 fallow years after shifting cultivation. Forest Ecology and Management, 529, 120671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120671

Bos, S. P. M., Cornioley, T., Dray, A., Waeber, P. O., & Garcia, C. A. (2020). Exploring livelihood strategies of shifting cultivation farmers in Assam through games. Sustainability, 12(6), 2438. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062438

Bruun, T. B., & Hepp, C. M. (2023). Carbon footprint of shifting cultivation landscapes: Current knowledge, assumptions and data gaps. Carbon Footprints, 2, 11. https://doi.org/10.20517/cf.2023.06

Bruun, T. B., Ryan, C. M., de Neergaard, A., & Berry, N. J. (2021). Soil organic carbon stocks maintained despite intensification of shifting cultivation. Geoderma, 388, 114804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114804

Carmenta, R., Cammelli, F., Dressler, W., Verbicaro, C., & Zaehringer, J. G. (2021a). Between a rock and a hard place: The burdens of uncontrolled fire for smallholders across the tropics. World Development, 145, 105521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105521

Carmenta, R., Zabala, A., Trihadmojo, B., Gaveau, D. L. A., Salim, M. A., & Phelps, J. (2021b). Evaluating bundles of interventions to prevent peat-fires in Indonesia. Global Environmental Change, 67, 102154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102154

Chen, S., Olofsson, P., Saphangthong, T., & Woodcock, C. E. (2023a). Monitoring shifting cultivation in Laos with Landsat time series. Remote Sensing of Environment, 288, 113507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2023.113507

Chen, S., Woodcock, C. E., Saphangthong, T., & Olofsson, P. (2023b). Satellite data reveals a recent increase in shifting cultivation and associated carbon emissions in Laos. Environmental Research Letters, 18(11), 114012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acffdd

Daeli, W., Carmenta, R., Monroe, M., & Adams, A. (2021). Where policy and culture collide: Perceptions and responses of swidden farmers to the burn ban in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Human Ecology, 49, 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-021-00227-y

Dhandapani, S., & Evers, S. (2020). Oil palm “slash-and-burn” practice increases post-fire greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient concentrations in burnt regions of an agricultural tropical peatland. Science of the Total Environment, 742, 140648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140648

Eilenberg, M. (2022). The last enclosure: Smoke, fire and crisis on the Indonesian forest frontier. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 49(5), 969–998. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2021.1907355

Fachin, P. A., Thomaz, E. L., Fernandes, N. F., & Coelho Netto, A. L. (2024). Seven decades of Atlantic rainforest conversion to slash-and-burn agriculture: Effects on soil’s physical properties. Journal of Environmental Management, 350, 119682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119682

Goldstein, J. E., Graham, L., Ansori, S., Vetrita, Y., Thomas, A., Applegate, G., Vayda, A. P., Saharjo, B. H., & Cochrane, M. A. (2020). Beyond slash-and-burn: The roles of human activities, altered hydrology and fuels in peat fires in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 41, 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12319

Grosvenor, M. J., Ardiyani, V., Wooster, M. J., Gillott, S., Green, D. C., Lestari, P., & Suri, W. (2024). Catastrophic impact of extreme 2019 Indonesian peatland fires on urban air quality and health. Communications Earth & Environment, 5, 649. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01813-w

Hands, M. (2021). The search for a sustainable alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture in the world’s rain forests: The Guama Model and its implementation. Royal Society Open Science, 8, 201204. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201204

Hazarika, A., Kurmi, B., Francaviglia, R., Sileshi, G. W., Paramesh, V., Das, A. K., & Nath, A. J. (2024). The transition from shifting cultivation to indigenous agroforestry as nature-based solution for land restoration in the Indian Eastern Himalayas. Ecological Indicators, 162, 112031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112031

Hazenbosch, M., Sui, S., Isua, B., Beauchamp, E., Frouz, J., Imale, K., Jimbudo, M., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Novotný, V., Veselá, H., & Morris, R. J. (2021). Using locally available fertilisers to enhance the yields of swidden farmers in Papua New Guinea. Agricultural Systems, 192, 103089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103089

Hein, L., Spadaro, J. V., Ostro, B., Hammer, M., Sumarga, E., Salmayenti, R., Boer, R., Tata, H., Atmoko, D., & Castañeda, J.-P. (2022). The health impacts of Indonesian peatland fires. Environmental Health, 21, 62. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-022-00872-w

Hepp, C. M., Kurien, A. J., Tong, X., & Bruun, T. B. (2026). Shifting cultivation as a driver of deforestation: Misinterpreted data, misguided conclusions, and misplaced blame. One Earth, 9(7), 101706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2026.101706

Jagannath, P., Dutta, S., Jamir, C., & Chatterjee, S. (2025). Drivers of shifting cultivation in Nagaland: Crop cycles, crop selection, and management. International Journal of Anthropology and Ethnology, 9, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41257-025-00131-z

Kiely, L., Spracklen, D. V., Arnold, S. R., Papargyropoulou, E., Conibear, L., Wiedinmyer, C., Knote, C., & Adrianto, H. A. (2021). Assessing costs of Indonesian fires and the benefits of restoring peatland. Nature Communications, 12, 7044. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27353-x

Kim, D.-G. (2025). Shifting cultivation in Africa: A comprehensive review of its impacts on biodiversity, soil health, and livelihoods. Agroforestry Systems, 99, 146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01239-z

Laskar, S. Y., Sileshi, G. W., Pathak, K., Debnath, N., Nath, A. J., Laskar, K. Y., Singnar, P., & Das, A. K. (2021). Variations in soil organic carbon content with chronosequence, soil depth and aggregate size under shifting cultivation. Science of the Total Environment, 762, 143114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143114

Li, P., & Nath, A. J. (2024). The history and revival of swidden agriculture research in the tropics. CABI Agriculture and Bioscience, 5, 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-024-00298-z

Lintemani, M. G., Loss, A., Mendes, C. S., & Fantini, A. C. (2020). Long fallows allow soil regeneration in slash-and-burn agriculture. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 100(3), 1142–1154. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10123

Magalhães, T. M. (2023). Trees in agricultural landscapes maintain soil organic carbon following miombo woodland conversion to shifting cultivation. Geoderma, 429, 116241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2022.116241

Mathur, I., & Bhattacharya, P. (2022). Transition from shifting cultivation to agroforestry: A case study of regrouped villages in Tripura, India. Environmental Challenges, 7, 100471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100471

Mertz, O., Bruun, T. B., Jepsen, M. R., Ryan, C. M., Zaehringer, J. G., Hinrup, J. S., & Heinimann, A. (2021). Ecosystem service provision by secondary forests in shifting cultivation areas remains poorly understood. Human Ecology, 49, 271–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-021-00236-x

Monsalve Cuartas, A. M., Masso-Ardila, A. V., Machado, D., Sanchez Flórez, I., Cacais, E. S., Suárez Villafane, C., Vásquez, J. G., & Walker S, A. M. (2025). The role of cultural fire values among the Arhuaco, Tikuna, Uitoto, Pijao, and Embera-Chamí Indigenous Peoples of Colombia in promoting sustainable forest governance. Human Ecology, 53, 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-025-00618-5

Moure, M., Smith-Hall, C., Schmook, B., Calmé, S., & Jacobsen, J. B. (2024). Uncertainty and perceived cause-effect help explain differences in adaptation responses between swidden agriculture and agroforestry smallholders. Environmental Science & Policy, 159, 103819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2024.103819

Mukul, S. A., & Byg, A. (2020). What determines Indigenous Chepang farmers’ swidden land-use decisions in the Central Hill districts of Nepal?. Sustainability, 12(13), 5326. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135326

Mukul, S. A., Herbohn, J., & Firn, J. (2020). Rapid recovery of tropical forest diversity and structure after shifting cultivation in the Philippines uplands. Ecology and Evolution, 10, 7189–7211. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6419

Mukul, S. A., Herbohn, J., Ferraren, A., & Congdon, R. (2022). Limited role of shifting cultivation in soil carbon and nutrients recovery in regenerating tropical secondary forests. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 1076506. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1076506

Nath, P. C., Nath, A. J., Reang, D., Lal, R., & Das, A. K. (2021). Tree diversity, soil organic carbon lability and ecosystem carbon storage under a fallow age chronosequence in North East India. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators, 10, 100122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2021.100122

Neger, C., Ponce-Calderón, L. P., Manzo-Delgado, L. de L., & López-Madrid, M. A. (2024). Integrated fire management in a tropical biosphere reserve: Achievements and challenges. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 106, 104447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104447

Pandey, D. K., Dubey, S. K., Verma, A. K., Wangchu, L., Dixit, S., Devi, C. V., & Sawargaonkar, G. (2023). Indigenous Peoples’ psychological wellbeing amid transitions in shifting cultivation landscape: Evidence from the Indian Himalayas. Sustainability, 15(8), 6791. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086791

Paul, S., Das, T. K., Pharung, R., Ray, S., Mridha, N., Kalita, N., Ralte, V., Borthakur, S., Burman, R. R., Tripathi, A. K., & Singh, A. K. (2020). Development of an indicator based composite measure to assess livelihood sustainability of shifting cultivation dependent ethnic minorities in the disadvantageous Northeastern region of India. Ecological Indicators, 110, 105934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105934

Phouyyavong, K., Tomita, S., & Yokoyama, S. (2020). Smallholder’s labor allocation for livelihood diversification: A case study in an upland village in northern Laos. Tropics, 29(1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.MS19-08

Pinho, R. C., Pequeno, P. A. C. L., & Alfaia, S. S. (2023). Soil fertility in indigenous swidden fields and fallows in northern Amazonia, Brazil. Soil Use and Management, 39, 1517–1531. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12886

Polthanee, A., Promkhambut, A., Aditto, S., & Phasouysaingam, A. (2021). Impact of changing swidden-based farming to rubber-based farming on food security in Luang Namtha Province, Lao PDR. Sustainability, 13(14), 7617. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13147617

Primo, A. A., de Araújo Neto, R. A., Zeferino, L. B., Fernandes, F. É. P., de Araújo Filho, J. A., Cerri, C. E. P., & de Oliveira, T. S. (2023). Slash and burn management and permanent or rotation agroforestry systems: A comparative study for C sequestration by Century model simulation. Journal of Environmental Management, 336, 117594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117594

Purnomo, H., Puspitaloka, D., Okarda, B., Andrianto, A., Qomar, N., Sutikno, S., Muhammad, A., Basuki, I., Jalil, A., Yesi, Prasetyo, P., Tarsono, Zulkardi, Kusumadewi, S. D., Komarudin, H., Dermawan, A., & Brady, M. A. (2024). Community-based fire prevention and peatland restoration in Indonesia: A participatory action research approach. Environmental Development, 50, 100971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2024.100971

Pyone, K. H. H., Crego, R. D., Ngwe, S. S., Win, S. D., Connette, K. L., Songer, M., & Connette, G. M. (2024). Understanding the transition of community land use from shifting cultivation to cash cropping in southern Tanintharyi, Myanmar. People and Nature, 6(3), 1130–1142. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10631

Ramcilovic-Suominen, S., & Kotilainen, J. (2020). Power relations in community resilience and politics of shifting cultivation in Laos. Forest Policy and Economics, 115, 102159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102159

Reang, D., Hazarika, A., Sileshi, G. W., Pandey, R., Das, A. K., & Nath, A. J. (2021). Assessing tree diversity and carbon storage during land use transitioning from shifting cultivation to indigenous agroforestry systems: Implications for REDD+ initiatives. Journal of Environmental Management, 298, 113470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113470

Robins, L., van Kerkhoff, L., Rochmayanto, Y., Sakuntaladewi, N., & Agrawal, S. (2022). Knowledge systems approaches for enhancing project impacts in complex settings: Community fire management and peatland restoration in Indonesia. Regional Environmental Change, 22, 100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-022-01960-w

Sharma, S. B., Kumar, S., Ovung, E. Y., & Konsam, B. (2022). Vegetation dynamics and soil nutrients across different shifting cultivation fallows in Montane Subtropical Forest of Mizoram, NE India. Acta Oecologica, 115, 103833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2022.103833

Smith, W., Neale, T., & Weir, J. K. (2021). Persuasion without policies: The work of reviving Indigenous peoples’ fire management in southern Australia. Geoforum, 120, 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2021.01.015

Swe, K. N., & Nawata, E. (2020). Changing practices from swidden to permanent agriculture in traditional swidden cultivation areas: Case studies in three Karen villages of the Bago Mountains, Myanmar. Tropical Agriculture and Development, 64(2), 80–89. https://doi.org/10.11248/jsta.64.80

Tran, T. A., & Touch, V. (2024). How agricultural extension responds to amplified agrarian transitions in mainland Southeast Asia: Experts’ reflections. Agriculture and Human Values, 41, 1773–1789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-024-10577-0

Tverskoi, D., & Scaggs, S. A. (2025). A complex adaptive systems model of labour reciprocity and normative reasoning in swidden agriculture. Royal Society Open Science, 12, 242197. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.242197

Wang, J., Wang, H., Ding, Y., Zhang, Y., Cong, W., Zang, R., & Liu, S. (2023). Shifting cultivation and logging change soil organic carbon functional groups in tropical lowland rainforests on Hainan Island in China. Forest Ecology and Management, 549, 121447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121447